Football fans were shown a “constant bombardment” of advertisements promoting junk food and drinks during matches at the 2026 Fifa World Cup, according to a new study.

Researchers at the University of Bristol and University of Oxford created an AI tool to analyse ads which were visible to television viewers during live play in the tournament’s 104 matches, mostly displayed on pitchside advertising boards and around stadiums in the USA, Canada, and Mexico.

They found that logos and products for brands that produce junk food and drinks – defined by the UK government as being high in fat, salt or sugar – were displayed 65,722 times in total.

And the study also found that those adverts were visible for 28.1 hours’ time across the tournament, or just over 16% of the total time that matches were being played.

The ads were all shown on the international feed of matches during play – meaning they were visible to every viewer in every country broadcasting matches – and do not include ads shown during pre-match coverage, half-time commercial breaks, or the controversial in-match hydration breaks.

The model used by the researchers estimated that there were an average of 576 visible ads for junk food and drink shown during each individual match.

Coca-Cola had the highest number (21,893), followed by McDonald’s (13,915), Powerade (12,777), and Lay’s – the crisps manufacturer known as Walkers in the UK – (12,087).

All four brands are official partners of world football governing body Fifa, with the Powerade energy drink owned by the Coca-Cola company.

In response to the findings, Fifa argued that the vast majority of its revenue is put back into football, including on projects promoting health and wellbeing in which thousands of people participate.

A Fifa spokesperson said: “Fifa works with a broad, global portfolio of partners, all of which are subject to its governance and compliance frameworks.

“Fifa’s social impact campaigns, including Be Active, delivered messages of unity, inclusion, health and friendship to audiences on an unprecedented scale throughout the World Cup”.

BBC Sport also contacted Coca Cola, McDonald’s and PepsiCo – which owns Lay’s – but did not receive a reply.