The 21st century of air warfare has been defined by a new technological arms race aimed at crafting the stealthiest and most heavily computerized combat aircraft possible. Stealth was pioneered by the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit bomber and the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor. Yet, the LM F-35 Lightning II, in its strike fighter configuration, has proliferated stealth technology at an unprecedented scale.

The high cost of the F-35, combined with some major deficiencies, has led some prospective buyers to opt out. Instead, there has been a rise in reliance on 4th and 4.5-generation fighter jets by several NATO allies, like Germany and the United Kingdom, until they can develop their own 6th-generation fighter. Then there are other air forces which cannot afford to leapfrog over the 5th generation and simply do not require it for their mission. Still, others are expected to begin development of any next-gen warbird, like France, but have not yet publicly announced any clear plans.

Royal Saudi Arabian Air Force

100+ Orders for Eagle IIs and Eurofighter Typhoons

Credit: Department of Defense

The Royal Saudi Air Force has established a multi-layered 4.5-generation fleet that it is fully modernizing under its Vision 2030. The US also restricts the sale of the F-35 in the Middle East. This choice allows Saudi Arabia to avoid the diplomatic and technical restrictions of the F-35 program while maximizing immediate strike power.

Riyadh is advancing negotiations with BAE Systems for a $5 billion tranche of 48 additional Eurofighter Typhoons, which would expand its total Typhoon fleet to 120 combat aircraft. In mid-2026, the Taif Maintenance Center completed its first certified 2,500-hour Eurofighter Typhoon heavy overhaul. This makes Taif the only certified Typhoon Major Scheduled Servicing facility outside Europe.

Saudi Arabia is also moving forward with plans to acquire 60 brand-new Boeing F-15EX Eagle IIs while leveraging a $9.8 billion modernization contract to upgrade its existing F-15S/SA fleets. The F-15EX provides the RSAF with unmatched payload capacity, out-carrying the F-35 in terms of standoff missile capability. On top of this major force enhancement, RSAF has also explored the possibility of buying as many as 54 Dassault Rafales, which remain an open possibility for fleet growth.

Qatari Emiri Air Force

Building a 4.5-gen fleet of Rafales, Typhoons, and Eagle IIs

Credit: Department of Defense

The Qatar Emiri Air Force faces the same export restrictions as the RSAF in terms of procuring the F-35, which has led the QEAF to invest in a diverse fleet of 4.5-gen fighter jets instead. Qatar has a 36-strong fleet of Boeing F-15 QA Eagles which have been customized with advanced fly-by-wire and avionics as part of a $12 billion procurement deal. These jets are very similar in specification to the F-15EX Eagle II in terms of performance, payload, and weapons capability.

Qatar has been in talkes with Dassault Aviation to upgrade its baseline 36 F3R Rafales to the newer F4 software tier, according to AeroTime. The Qatari Rafales feature the Elbit Systems TARGO II helmet-mounted display system and Lockheed Martin Sniper advanced targeting pods, alongside full integration with MBDA Meteor beyond-visual-range air-to-air missiles and SCALP-EG cruise missiles.

The QEAF also ordered 24 Eurofighter Typhoons in a $7 billion deal with the systems that include training with the number 12 RAF Squadron. These aircraft are some of the first exported Eurofighters to have a Leonardo ECRS Mark Zero active electronically scanned array equipped. Not only is this radar extremely capable, but it integrates with the new Meteor and Brimstone beyond-visual-range missiles to provide state-of-the-art air-to-air and strike lethality.

The Swedish Air Force

Investing in the Saab JAS-39 Gripen E

Credit: Department of Defense

Spurred by growing concern over the collective defense of Europe after the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Sweden became the newest member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization as the 32nd addition to the alliance in 2024. The Swedish Air Force already interoperates with the US and NATO allies to protect the airspace of Scandinavia and the Baltics, but since then it has dramatically increased integration.

Although the small nation’s defense budget does not accommodate the purchase of an ‘exquisite’ platform like the F-35, the Saab Gripen E is one of the most valuable members of the new ‘Hi-Lo’ fleet mix. What the JAS-39E lacks in stealth and computerized weapon systems, it makes up for in ruggedness and high mission readiness levels. It is also one of the best dogfighters on the planet thanks to its high thrust-to-weight ratio.

The Gripen E can actually outrun the F-35 with its top speed of Mach 2.0 compared to the American jet’s Mach 1.6 limit. To compensate for its lack of stealth technology, the Swedish fighter follows a similar tactical plan to the jammer Typhoons of the Luftwaffe with advanced EW capabilities. This active form of protection enables the 4.5-gen light fighter to be much more survivable in contested airspace against advanced integrated air defense systems, even though it cannot match true stealth.

Spain’s Armada, Air And Space Forces

Buying 45 Halcon I & II tranche Eurofighters

Credit: Department of Defense

In one of the most dramatic reversals in the history of the F-35 program, Spain opted out of procuring the F-35A and F-35B Lightning II variants for both its air force and fleet air arm. Instead, the air and space forces will have decided to invest $7 billion in two new tranches of Eurofighter Typhoons. The Halcon I and II batch jets will modernize its current force until Spain decides on a 6th-generation development program.

In parallel, the Armada’s Naval Aviation branch will extend the life of its 4th-generation AV-8B Harrier II jump jets. They will keep these legacy strike fighters until at least 2032 by cannibalizing parts from decommissioned airframes purchased from the US Marines and Italy.

Notably, the assault carrier Juan Carlos I that these jets are assigned to is slated to be replaced by a much larger super carrier loosely configured like the French Navy’s Charles de Gaulle. This indicates that the next generation of ‘tail hook’ fighters will be a major step up, but it is unclear what it will be.

The German Luftwaffe

Procuring 20 new tranche for Eurofighters

Credit: Department of Defense

The German Air Force has declined to invest in the American-made F-35 JSF, although they are replacing the small Tornado fleet with 35 F-35As to perform the dual-capable aircraft nuclear deterrence role. However, the backbone of the fighter fleet will continue to be Eurofighter Typhoons, as Germany was not satisfied with the F-35 despite the advantage of stealth technology.

Instead of retrofitting the existing fleet, the Luftwaffe has ordered 38 new Eurofighters in 2020 and then 20 more in 2025. This decision came as a result of both the government’s choice to invest in European Defense contractors as opposed to buying the American fighter, but also due to the failure of the Future Combat Air System. The FCAS program fell through earlier this year when Airbus and Dassault Aerospace could not come to terms over intellectual property and work sharing to develop a new 6th-generation fighter.

Additionally, 15 of the Luftwaffe’s Eurofighter EK electronic warfare variants will also be converted to receive the new Saab Arexis EW suites as a replacement for the older Tornados. The upgraded jammer jets will complement the upgraded mainline fleet to increase survivability in general and significantly enhance suppression of enemy air defense capabilities.

The Royal Air Force And Navy

Upgrading legacy Typhoons while investing in new drones

Credit: Department of Defense

The United Kingdom was the only tier one investor of the Joint Strike Fighter program when it launched, and none of the other 18 partners that have since joined have equaled that level of commitment, including Israel, which is the only one to have true autonomy over its fleet. The rising cost, slow deliveries, lack of true sovereignty, and continuous disappointment in software upgrades have led the RAF and Fleet Air Arm to reconsider.

The RAF will procure some F-35As to fulfill its treaty obligation to the NATO nuclear deterrence mission, like Germany, but only a dozen. At the same time, it has discounted the possibility of any other F-35s and halted any future orders of the F-35B for its fleet. Instead, the UK is going all in on the Global Combat Air Program in partnership with Japan and Italy. Meanwhile, the Navy is investing in Project Vanquish to develop collaborative combat aircraft instead of getting more stealth jump jets.

To prevent an operational capability cliff while suffering from historically low fighter numbers, the UK has upgraded to 40 of its 107 Typhoons with new systems like ECRS Mk2 radar and advanced electronic warfare suites. This dual-track approach keeps sovereign aerospace engineering active via BAE Systems until the GCAP Tempest replaces the Typhoon in the mid-2030s.

Simultaneously, with the downgrading of FCAS to a drone-in-combat cloud-based program, new partners are being attracted to GCAP. Canada signed on as the first observer, and both Germany and Spain are showing interest in joining as well. The expansion of this program would see the UK and the other partners leapfrog from 4.5 to 6th-generation along the same timeline as the US Air Force’s next-gen air dominance, which aims to get the Boeing F-47 into the air by the early 2030s.